Ultimate Revision Summary

All 5 units · 38 answers condensed · Organized by syllabus topics

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Jurisprudence of Human Rights

Nature, definition, origin, and theories

Meaning, Nature & Characteristics

S.2(1)(d) PHRA 1993 — rights relating to life, liberty, equality, dignity guaranteed by Constitution or International Covenants enforceable by courts
Inherent — belong by birth, not granted by any authority
Universal — apply to all humans without distinction Art 2 UDHR
Inalienable — cannot be taken away, surrendered, or transferred
Indivisible — civil-political and ESC rights equally important, no hierarchy
Interdependent — fulfilment of one depends on realization of others (vote needs education)
Imprescriptible — do not expire with time or non-exercise
Dynamic — expand with social progress (privacy, environment, digital)
Art 4(2) ICCPR — 7 non-derogable rights cannot be suspended even in emergency
State obligations: Respect + Protect + Fulfil (threefold duty)
Vienna Declaration 1993 — "All human rights are universal, indivisible, interdependent and interrelated"

Remember 10 characteristics: "I U-I-I-I-N-I-I-D-B" — Inherent, Universal, Inalienable, Indivisible, Interdependent, Non-discriminatory, Imprescriptible, Irrevocable, Dynamic, Both (individual & collective). 7 Non-derogable rights: "LTS-DRP-C" — Life, Torture (no), Slavery (no), Debt imprisonment (no), Retroactive law (no), Personhood, Conscience. State duty: "RPF" — Respect, Protect, Fulfil.

Theories of Human Rights

Natural Law — rights inherent in human nature, discoverable by reason, exist before positive law — Aristotle → Aquinas → Grotius → Locke → Rousseau
Locke: natural rights to life, liberty, property; social contract; right to revolt
Positivism — rights exist only when enacted by law — Austin, Bentham ("natural rights is nonsense upon stilts")
Marxist — liberal rights are bourgeois ideology; formal equality masks substantive inequality. Influenced ICESCR and 2nd generation rights
Sociological — Roscoe Pound: law as "social engineering," rights are socially constructed
Feminist — mainstream HR framework excludes women's experience — private/public divide critique
Cultural Relativism — universal rights impose Western values; rights must respect cultural context
American Declaration (1776) and French Declaration (1789) = Natural Law Theory in action

Remember theories: "N-P-M-S-F-C" — Natural law, Positivist, Marxist, Sociological, Feminist, Cultural Relativist. Natural Law chain: "A-A-G-L-R" — Aristotle → Aquinas → Grotius → Locke → Rousseau. Bentham's quote: "nonsense upon stilts" (against natural rights).

Origin & Historical Development

Cyrus Cylinder 539 BC — first charter of human rights — freed slaves, religious freedom
Ancient India: Dharma, Ahimsa (non-violence), Ashoka's edicts — tolerance and welfare
Magna Carta 1215 — King subject to law; no arbitrary imprisonment; right to fair trial (Clause 39)
English Bill of Rights 1689 — parliamentary supremacy, free elections, no cruel punishment
American Declaration 1776 — "All men are created equal... unalienable Rights"
French Declaration 1789 — liberty, property, security as natural and imprescriptible rights
UN Charter 1945 — Art 1(3): promote respect for human rights
UDHR 1948 — 10 December, 30 Articles, Eleanor Roosevelt, customary international law
ICCPR + ICESCR 1966 — binding treaties giving legal force to UDHR = International Bill of Rights
Vienna Declaration 1993 — reaffirmed universality, indivisibility, interdependence

Timeline trick: "CAME-FAUX-UV" — Cyrus (539 BC), Ashoka, Magna Carta (1215), English BoR (1689), French (1789), American (1776), UN Charter (1945), UDHR (1948), Vienna (1993). Key dates: UDHR = 10 Dec 1948 (HR Day). Both Covenants = 1966, in force 1976.

Classification & Three Generations

Karel Vasak (1979): three generations framework based on Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité
1st Gen — civil & political: "negative" rights — State must NOT interfere — ICCPR — India Part III
2nd Gen — economic, social, cultural: "positive" rights — State MUST act — ICESCR — India Part IV (DPSPs)
3rd Gen — collective/solidarity: self-determination, development, environment — African Charter 1981
SC read 2nd gen into Art 21 — Unni Krishnan (education), Paschim Banga (health), Olga Tellis (livelihood), Chameli Singh (shelter)
3rd gen in India — M.C. Mehta v. UOI (1987) right to clean environment under Art 21
Vienna Declaration 1993 — all rights universal, indivisible, interdependent — NO hierarchy

3 Generations = French motto: Liberté (1st — CP/ICCPR/Part III), Égalité (2nd — ESC/ICESCR/Part IV), Fraternité (3rd — Solidarity/African Charter). Art 21 cases for 2nd gen: "UEHS" — Unni Krishnan (Education), (no letter), Paschim Banga (Health), Chameli Singh (Shelter) + Olga Tellis (Livelihood).

Human Rights vs Fundamental Rights

Concentric circles: all FRs are human rights, but NOT all human rights are FRs
HR source: natural law + international treaties (UDHR, ICCPR, ICESCR)
FR source: Constitution — India Part III Art 12-35
HR scope: universal — all humans everywhere. FR scope: territorial — some only for citizens (Art 15, 16, 19)
S.2(1)(d) PHRA 1993 bridges gap — defines HRs as Constitution + International Covenants
SC read HRs into Art 21 — privacy, education, health, livelihood, shelter, environment
Minerva Mills (1980) — FRs and DPSPs are complementary, both needed

HR vs FR — think concentric circles: FR is the inner circle (Constitution, territorial), HR is the outer circle (international, universal). Part III = 6 categories: "EFERCE" — Equality (14-18), Freedom (19-22), Exploitation (23-24), Religion (25-28), Cultural/Educational (29-30), Remedies (32). Minerva Mills: "Two wheels of a chariot" (FRs + DPSPs).

Universality vs Cultural Relativism

Universalist basis: natural law + inherent dignity + UDHR + Vienna Declaration
"Asian Values": Lee Kuan Yew, Mahathir — community/order over individual liberty
Cairo Declaration 1990 — rights "within the framework of Sharia"
African Charter 1981 — collective rights AND individual duties to community
UDHR was not purely Western: Hansa Mehta (India), Charles Malik (Lebanon), P.C. Chang (China)
Middle path: core rights universal + implementation culturally adapted + cross-cultural dialogue
India: broadly universalist (ratified ICCPR/ICESCR) but maintains personal laws and minority rights

3 relativist positions to remember: Asian Values (Lee Kuan Yew — community over liberty), Cairo Declaration 1990 (rights within Sharia), African Charter 1981 (duties to community). UDHR drafters were diverse: Hansa Mehta (India), Charles Malik (Lebanon), P.C. Chang (China) — NOT purely Western.

Universal Protection of Human Rights

United Nations, UDHR 1948, ICCPR 1966, ICESCR 1966

UN & Human Rights

Art 1(3) UN Charter — human rights as core pillar of UN. Art 55-56 — member states pledge cooperation
General Assembly — adopts major HR conventions (UDHR, Covenants), Third Committee
Security Council — can enforce HR under Chapter VII when violations threaten international peace
HRC — created 2006 (replaced Commission), 47 members, meets in Geneva
UPR — peer-review of all 193 members every 4.5 years — state, UN, and NGO reports
OHCHR — established 1993, headed by High Commissioner, coordinates HR activities
Special Procedures: Special Rapporteurs investigate thematic or country-specific issues
India & UPR: accepts most recommendations but rejects political interference (Kashmir, AFSPA)
Critique: recommendations non-binding; HRC lacks enforcement; political bloc voting protects violators

UN HR bodies: "GA-SC-HRC-OHCHR" — General Assembly (adopts), Security Council (enforces Ch VII), HRC (47 members, Geneva, UPR), OHCHR (1993, High Commissioner). HRC replaced Commission in 2006. UPR = every 4.5 years, all 193 states.

UDHR 1948

Adopted 10 Dec 1948 (International HR Day), UNGA Res 217A(III), 48-0-8
Drafted by: Eleanor Roosevelt (Chair); Indian delegate Hansa Mehta secured "all human beings" (gender-neutral)
30 Articles: Preamble + rights. Not a treaty (soft law) but now customary international law
Art 3-21 — civil & political rights (life, liberty, security, fair trial, speech, assembly)
Art 22-27 — economic, social, cultural rights (social security, work, education, health)
No enforcement mechanism — moral/political authority only
Foundation for ICCPR + ICESCR; influenced 90+ national constitutions
Deeply shaped India's Part III (FRs) and Part IV (DPSPs)
Maneka Gandhi (1978) — cited to expand Art 21; Vishaka (1997) — SH guidelines

UDHR numbers: 10 Dec 1948, 30 Articles, 48-0-8 (votes for-against-abstain). CP = Art 3-21, ESC = Art 22-27. Remember: Not a treaty but now customary international law. Influenced 90+ constitutions. Hansa Mehta changed "all men" to "all human beings."

ICCPR 1966

Adopted 16 Dec 1966, in force 23 Mar 1976. India acceded 10 Apr 1979
Immediate obligation — "respect and ensure" rights (unlike ICESCR's progressive realization)
Art 6 life; Art 7 no torture; Art 9 liberty; Art 14 fair trial; Art 18 thought/religion; Art 19 expression; Art 25 political participation; Art 27 minority rights
Art 4(2) — 7 non-derogable rights: life, no torture, no slavery, no debt imprisonment, no retroactive law, personhood, conscience
Human Rights Committee (Art 28) — 18 experts, monitors via state reports, General Comments
OP1 individual complaints; OP2 abolition of death penalty — India ratified neither
India's reservations: self-determination (Art 1) and preventive detention (Art 9)
Corresponds to Part III (Fundamental Rights) of Indian Constitution

ICCPR key numbers: 1966 adopted, 1976 in force, India 1979. Obligation = immediate. India's 2 reservations: Art 1 (self-determination) & Art 9 (preventive detention). India did NOT ratify: OP1 (individual complaints) or OP2 (death penalty abolition). HRC: 18 experts monitor.

ICESCR 1966

Adopted 16 Dec 1966, in force 3 Jan 1976. India acceded 10 Apr 1979
Progressive realization — Art 2(1): "to maximum of available resources"
Immediate duties: duty to "take steps" and non-discrimination (Art 2(2)) are immediate
Non-retrogression — cannot reduce protection levels without strict justification
Minimum core — Limburg Principles (1986): basic food, shelter, primary health, basic education immediately
Art 6 work; Art 7 just conditions; Art 9 social security; Art 11 adequate living; Art 12 health; Art 13 education; Art 15 cultural life
CESCR — Committee on ESC Rights, 18 experts, state reports, General Comments
Corresponds to Part IV (DPSPs). SC read ICESCR rights into Art 21

ICESCR = progressive, not immediate. "WJSAHEC" — Work (6), Just conditions (7), Social security (9), Adequate living (11), Health (12), Education (13), Cultural life (15). But 2 duties are immediate: take steps + non-discrimination. Minimum core = Limburg Principles (1986): basic food, shelter, primary health, basic education — no excuses.

ICCPR vs ICESCR

Obligation: ICCPR = immediate compliance; ICESCR = progressive realization
Nature: ICCPR = negative (State hands-off); ICESCR = positive (State hands-on)
Derogation: ICCPR has Art 4 (7 non-derogable); ICESCR has NO derogation clause
Monitoring: ICCPR → Human Rights Committee; ICESCR → CESCR
Justiciability: CP rights traditionally justiciable; ESC rights traditionally non-justiciable
Modern synthesis: distinctions fading — ICCPR needs positive resources; ICESCR has justiciable core minimums
India: Part III (FRs) = ICCPR; Part IV (DPSPs) = ICESCR. SC harmonized via Art 21

Quick contrast table: ICCPR = Immediate / Negative / Part III / HRC monitors. ICESCR = Progressive / Positive / Part IV / CESCR monitors. ICCPR has derogation (Art 4); ICESCR has none. Both adopted 16 Dec 1966. India acceded both on 10 Apr 1979.

International Bill of Human Rights

Comprises: UDHR (1948) + ICCPR (1966) + ICESCR (1966) + 2 Optional Protocols
Cold War split: separated into two covenants in 1952 (East-West disagreement on civil vs economic)
Both Covenants share Art 1 (self-determination) and non-discrimination clauses
UDHR = vision; ICCPR & ICESCR = legal obligations
Deeply influenced India's FRs (Part III) and DPSPs (Part IV)

International Bill of HR = UDHR + ICCPR + ICESCR + 2 Optional Protocols. Think of it as: Vision (UDHR) + Law (2 Covenants). Split into two covenants in 1952 due to Cold War (West wanted CP, East wanted ESC).

Regional Protection of Human Rights

European, Inter-American, and African systems

European System (ECHR + ECtHR)

ECHR 1950 — in force 1953, Council of Europe, 46 members, 700+ million people
Primarily civil & political rights; expanded via Additional Protocols
ECtHR (Strasbourg) — permanent court, 46 judges, 9-year non-renewable terms
Structure: Single Judge → 3-Judge Committee → 7-Judge Chamber → 17-Judge Grand Chamber
Art 34 — direct individual access: any person/NGO claiming victimhood can file
Judgments legally binding; Committee of Ministers supervises execution, "Just Satisfaction"
Living Instrument doctrine — interpreted dynamically (Tyrer v. UK)
Margin of appreciation — states have some discretion on implementation
Protocol 11 (1998): made Court permanent, abolished Commission — direct individual access
Admissibility: exhaustion of domestic remedies; 4-month deadline; significant disadvantage test

ECtHR structure — judges go up: 1 → 3 → 7 → 17 (Single → Committee → Chamber → Grand Chamber). Key numbers: 46 members, 46 judges, 9-year non-renewable. 2 doctrines: Living Instrument (Tyrer v. UK) + Margin of Appreciation. Protocol 11 (1998) = made court permanent + direct individual access.

Inter-American System

ACHR 1969 "Pact of San José" — in force 1978; OAS (35 members)
Two-organ structure: Commission (IACHR) + Court (IACtHR)
IACHR (Washington) — 7 members, universal mandate over all OAS states, receives petitions, on-site visits
IACtHR (San José) — 7 judges, binding judgments, advisory opinions
No direct access: individuals petition Commission; only Commission/states can refer to Court
USA/Canada: have NOT ratified ACHR — bound only by American Declaration under Commission

Inter-American = 7 + 7: 7 Commissioners (Washington) + 7 Judges (San José). No direct court access — must go through Commission first (unlike Europe). USA/Canada trick: they haven't ratified ACHR — only bound by Declaration. OAS = 35 members.

African System (Banjul Charter)

African Charter 1981 — in force 1986, ratified by all 55 AU states
Unique features: includes peoples'/collective rights (Art 19-24) + individual duties (Art 27-29)
No derogation clause — cannot suspend rights during emergencies
Claw-back clauses: rights limited by "provided he abides by the law"
African Commission (Banjul) — non-binding recommendations
African Court (Arusha, 2006) — binding judgments, but individual access requires Art 34(6) declaration (~8 states)
Maputo Protocol 2003 women's rights; Children's Charter 1990

African Charter is unique — 3 things no other treaty has: Peoples' rights (collective), Individual duties (Art 27-29), No derogation clause. But weakened by: claw-back clauses ("provided he abides by the law"). Court access: only ~8 states allow individuals via Art 34(6) declaration. All 55 AU states ratified.

Comparative & Individual Petition

Most effective: European (binding court, direct access, high compliance)
Most duties-focused: African (individual duties to family, state, community)
Court access: European (direct) vs Inter-American (through Commission) vs African (requires special state declaration)
Derogation: permitted in Europe/Americas during emergencies, NOT in Africa
Enforcement: European (CoM — strong) vs Inter-American (OAS GA — weak) vs African (AU Assembly — very weak)
Individual petition — enables individuals to bypass sovereignty and hold govts internationally accountable
Prerequisite: exhaustion of domestic remedies in all three systems
No Asian regional system — ASEAN HR Declaration 2012 is non-binding

Comparative trick — "Access gets harder East to West to South": Europe = Direct (strongest), Americas = Through Commission (middle), Africa = Special declaration (weakest). Derogation: Europe & Americas allow it; Africa does NOT. Enforcement strength: Europe (CoM) > Americas (OAS GA) > Africa (AU). All 3 require exhaustion of domestic remedies.

National Protection of Human Rights

Constitution, PHRA 1993, NHRC, SHRC, Judiciary

Constitutional Framework

Multi-layered: FRs (Part III) + DPSPs (Part IV) + Fundamental Duties (Part IVA) + remedies (Art 32/226)
Part III — 6 categories: Equality (14-18), Freedom (19-22), Exploitation (23-24), Religion (25-28), Cultural/Educational (29-30), Remedies (32). All justiciable
Art 21 — most powerful: expanded to include dignity, livelihood, education, health, shelter, environment, privacy, speedy trial, legal aid
Art 32 — "soul of Constitution" (Ambedkar): 5 writs — Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Certiorari, Quo Warranto. Art 226 wider HC power
Part IV — DPSPs: non-justiciable (Art 37) but "fundamental in governance." ESC rights — livelihood, education, health, equal pay
Minerva Mills (1980) — FR + DPSPs = "two wheels of a chariot"
Maneka Gandhi (1978) — Art 21 includes right to fair procedure, Art 14+19+21 = "golden triangle"

5 Writs — "HMPCQ": Habeas Corpus (illegal detention), Mandamus (compel public duty), Prohibition (stop excess jurisdiction), Certiorari (quash order), Quo Warranto (challenge office). Art 32 = SC, Art 226 = HC (wider). "Golden triangle" = Art 14 + 19 + 21 (Maneka Gandhi 1978). Minerva Mills: FRs + DPSPs = "two wheels of a chariot."

PHRA 1993

S 2(d) — "human rights" = rights to life, liberty, equality, dignity guaranteed by Constitution OR International Covenants AND enforceable by courts
Three-tier structure: NHRC (S 3) + SHRCs (S 21) + HR Courts (S 30)
Paris Principles (1991): required independent NHRIs with broad mandate, autonomy, pluralistic composition
S 30-31 — HR Courts: Court of Session per district (with HC CJ concurrence); Special Public Prosecutor
2019 Amendment: Chair need not be ex-CJI (any SC judge); tenure 5→3 years; mandatory woman member; deemed members from NCW/NCSC/NCST/NCBC/NCPCR/CCPD
Limitations: recommendatory only; cannot investigate >1 year old complaints; cannot probe armed forces directly

PHRA 3-tier structure: S 3 = NHRC, S 21 = SHRC, S 30 = HR Courts. S 2(d) definition formula: life + liberty + equality + dignity + (Constitution OR International Covenants) + enforceable by courts. 2019 Amendment — 3 changes: Chair expanded (any SC judge, not just ex-CJI), tenure 5→3 years, mandatory woman member.

NHRC

S 3 — Chair (retired CJI or SC judge) + 5 members (1 SC judge, 1 HC CJ, 3 with HR knowledge incl. 1 woman). Deemed members: NCSC, NCST, NCBC, NCW, NCPCR, CCPD Chairs
S 4 — appointed by President on Selection Committee: PM (Chair), Speaker, Home Minister, LoP (LS & RS), Dy Chairman RS. Term 3 years or age 70
S 12 — inquire into HR violations (suo motu/complaint), intervene in courts, visit jails, review safeguards, promote HR literacy
S 13-14 — civil court powers: summon witnesses, documents, affidavits. Can use govt agencies or own team
S 18 — after inquiry: recommend compensation, prosecution, interim relief, or approach SC/HC
"Toothless tiger": recommendatory only, no binding orders, no contempt power. Cannot probe armed forces (S 19). 1-year bar. Political appointment concerns
BUT: "A" status Paris Principles. Major impact on custodial deaths (24-hour reporting), bonded labour, right to food. ~90% compensation compliance rate

NHRC Selection Committee — 6 members: "PM-S-HM-LoP-LoP-DC" — PM (Chair), Speaker, Home Minister, LoP (LS), LoP (RS), Dy Chairman RS. "Toothless tiger" — 4 weaknesses: recommendatory only, can't probe armed forces (S 19), 1-year bar, political appointments. Counter: "A" status, 24-hour custodial death reporting, ~90% compliance.

SHRC & HR Courts

S 21 — SHRC: Chair (retired HC CJ or judge) + 3 members (1 judge, 2 HR experts incl. 1 woman)
S 22 — appointed by Governor on committee: CM (Chair), Speaker, Home Minister, LoP. Term 3 years or 70
Jurisdiction: NHRC = Union List + central servants. SHRC = State/Concurrent List. NHRC prevails if already inquiring
S 30-31 — HR Courts: Court of Session per district; Special PP (7+ years practice)
Practical gaps: many states haven't constituted SHRCs; very few HR Courts designated; lack staff, funds, independence

NHRC vs SHRC jurisdiction: NHRC = Union List, SHRC = State/Concurrent List. If NHRC already inquiring, SHRC cannot. SHRC = 1 + 3 (Chair + 3 members). HR Courts (S 30): Court of Session per district + Special PP (7+ years). Appointment: NHRC = President; SHRC = Governor.

Judiciary, PIL & Art 21 Expansion

Constitutional basis: Art 32 (SC writs), Art 226 (HC writs), Art 13 (judicial review), Art 142 (plenary power for complete justice)
PIL — developed by Justices P.N. Bhagwati & V.R. Krishna Iyer. Relaxed locus standi. Epistolary jurisdiction (letter = writ)
Hussainara Khatoon (1979) first PIL — speedy trial. S.P. Gupta (1982) formally established PIL
A.K. Gopalan (1950) — Art 21 narrow (any law sufficed). Maneka Gandhi (1978) — turning point: procedure must be just, fair, reasonable. Art 14+19+21 = golden triangle
CP rights read into Art 21: dignity (Francis Coralie 1981), privacy (Puttaswamy 2017), speedy trial (Hussainara 1979), legal aid (Hoskot 1978), against custodial torture (D.K. Basu 1997), sexual autonomy (Navtej Johar 2018)
ESC rights read into Art 21: livelihood (Olga Tellis 1985), education (Unni Krishnan 1993), health (Paschim Banga 1996), shelter (Chameli Singh 1996), food (PUCL 2001)
Environmental: clean environment (M.C. Mehta 1987), pollution-free air/water (Subhash Kumar 1991)
Significance: bridged FR-DPSP gap (made DPSPs justiciable via Art 21). Incorporated international norms. India's equivalent of International Bill of Rights
PIL criticism: judicial overreach, misuse for publicity, adds to 5+ crore pending cases, access issues for poorest

Art 21 expansion — 2 eras: Before 1978 = narrow (A.K. Gopalan — any law OK). After 1978 = Maneka Gandhi transformed everything. PIL pioneers: Justices Bhagwati + Krishna Iyer. First PIL = Hussainara Khatoon (1979). CP rights into Art 21: dignity, privacy, speedy trial, legal aid, no torture, sexual autonomy. ESC rights into Art 21: "LEHSF" — Livelihood (Olga Tellis), Education (Unni Krishnan), Health (Paschim Banga), Shelter (Chameli Singh), Food (PUCL). Environment: M.C. Mehta (1987).

Human Rights & Vulnerable Groups

Women, Children, Disabled, Tribals, Aged, Minorities

Women's Rights (incl. CEDAW & DV Act)

CEDAW 1979 — "Women's Bill of Rights," 189 parties. India ratified 9 July 1993 (reservations Art 5(a), 16(1), 16(2)). NOT ratified Optional Protocol
CEDAW Art 1 — discrimination = any distinction/exclusion/restriction on basis of sex. Covers direct AND indirect (effect, not just intent)
CEDAW obligations: Art 2 (condemn, adopt laws), Art 4 (affirmative action OK), Art 5 (modify stereotypes), Art 16 (marriage equality)
CEDAW Committee — 23 experts, state reports every 4 years, General Recommendations (GR 19: violence against women)
Constitution: Art 14 (equality), Art 15(1)/(3) (no sex discrimination + special provisions), Art 21 (dignity), Art 23 (no trafficking), Art 39(d) (equal pay), Art 42 (maternity), Art 51A(e) (duty)
DV Act 2005 — first civil DV law (in force 26 Oct 2006). S 3: physical + sexual + verbal/emotional + economic abuse
DV reliefs: Protection Order (S 18), Residence Order (S 19 — right to shared household even without ownership), Monetary (S 20), Custody (S 21), Ex Parte (S 23). Breach = 1 yr imprisonment (S 31)
DV machinery: Protection Officers (S 8-9), Service Providers (S 10, NGOs), Magistrate First Class (S 12)
SH Act 2013 (codifies Vishaka — ICC/LCC); Dowry Prohibition Act 1961; Maternity Benefit Act (26 weeks)
Political: 73rd/74th Amendments (1/3 Panchayat/Municipality). 106th Amendment 2023 (1/3 LS/State Assemblies after delimitation)
Vishaka (1997) SH guidelines via CEDAW. Shayara Bano (2017) triple talaq unconstitutional. Joseph Shine (2018) adultery struck. Hiral Harsora (2016) "adult male" struck from DV Act. D. Velusamy (2010) live-in covered
NCW — National Commission for Women Act 1990. Chair is deemed NHRC member (2019 Amendment)

CEDAW: 1979, India ratified 9 July 1993. "Women's Bill of Rights." DV Act 2005 — 4 types of abuse: "PSVE" — Physical, Sexual, Verbal/emotional, Economic. DV reliefs: "PRMCE" — Protection (S 18), Residence (S 19), Monetary (S 20), Custody (S 21), Ex Parte (S 23). Key cases: Vishaka (1997 — SH), Shayara Bano (2017 — triple talaq), Joseph Shine (2018 — adultery struck).

Children's Rights (incl. POCSO & JJ Act)

CRC 1989 — most ratified treaty (196 states). India ratified 11 Dec 1992. Child = below 18
4 CRC principles: non-discrimination (Art 2), best interests (Art 3), life/survival/development (Art 6), right to be heard (Art 12)
Constitution: Art 15(3) (special provisions), Art 21A (free education 6-14, 86th Amdt), Art 24 (no child labour in hazardous), Art 39(e)-(f) (tender age), Art 45 (early childhood <6), Art 51A(k) (parental duty)
POCSO 2012 — first dedicated child sexual abuse law, gender-neutral, in force 14 Nov 2012
POCSO offences: PSA (S 3, min 10 yrs); Aggravated PSA (S 5, min 20/life/death for <12 after 2019); Sexual assault (S 7); Sexual harassment (S 11); Child pornography (S 13-14)
POCSO features: presumption of guilt (S 29-30, reverse burden); mandatory reporting (S 19, failure = 6 months); Special Courts (trial within 1 year); child-friendly procedures
JJ Act 2015 — replaced JJ Act 2000 after Nirbhaya. Controversial: 16-18 in heinous offences may be tried as adults (S 15)
JJ classification: Petty (max 3 yrs — JJB), Serious (3-7 yrs — JJB decides), Heinous (min 7 yrs — may transfer to Children's Court)
JJ framework: JJB (Magistrate + 2 social workers); CWC (Chair + 4); Observation/Special Homes; CARA for adoption
16 principles (S 3): presumption of innocence, best interest, dignity, right to be heard, non-stigmatizing semantics, institutionalization as last resort, fresh start
RTE Act 2009 implements Art 21A; 25% private school reservation
M.C. Mehta v. TN (1996) child labour. Unni Krishnan (1993) education = FR. Lakshmi Kant Pandey (1984) adoption. AG v. Satish (2021) skin-to-skin = POCSO assault

CRC 4 principles: "NBLS" — Non-discrimination (Art 2), Best interests (Art 3), Life/survival/development (Art 6), Speak/be heard (Art 12). CRC: 1989, India ratified 11 Dec 1992. POCSO 2012: gender-neutral, reverse burden (S 29-30), mandatory reporting (S 19), trial in 1 year. JJ Act 2015: 16-18 can be tried as adults in heinous offences (S 15). JJ classification: Petty (<3 yrs) → Serious (3-7) → Heinous (>7).

Disabled Persons

UNCRPD 2006 — first binding disability treaty. India ratified 1 Oct 2007. Social model (not medical/charity)
Paradigm shift: disability = societal barriers, not individual impairment
Constitution: Art 14 (equality), Art 15 (disability read in by courts), Art 21 (dignity incl. accessibility), Art 41 (DPSP — work/education in disablement)
RPwD Act 2016 — replaced PWD 1995; 21 disabilities (up from 7); 4% govt reservation; mandatory accessibility; inclusive education 6-18; Chief Commissioner
Other: National Trust Act 1999, Mental Healthcare Act 2017 (rights-based, advance directives, ban on chaining)
Vikash Kumar v. UPSC (2021) reasonable accommodation for dyslexia. Jeeja Ghosh (2016) air travel discrimination violates Art 14/21
Challenges: social stigma, poor accessibility, low employment, rural services lacking, patchy state implementation

Paradigm shift: Medical model (disability = defect) → Social model (disability = societal barriers). UNCRPD 2006: India ratified 1 Oct 2007. RPwD Act 2016 replaced PWD 1995: 7 → 21 disabilities, 4% govt reservation. 3 laws to remember: RPwD 2016, National Trust Act 1999, Mental Healthcare Act 2017.

Tribals (Scheduled Tribes)

8.6% of India (104 million, 2011) — face land alienation, displacement, exploitation, cultural erosion
UNDRIP 2007 (non-binding — self-determination, FPIC, land rights). ILO 107 (India ratified). ILO 169 — India NOT ratified
Constitution: Art 15(4)/16(4) (reservation), Art 19(5) (movement restrictions for ST protection), Art 29 (culture), Art 46 (educational/economic interests)
Art 244 — 5th Schedule: Governor's special powers in Scheduled Areas (10 states), Tribes Advisory Council. 6th Schedule: Autonomous District Councils in NE (Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram) — self-governance
SC/ST Atrocities Act 1989 (Special Courts, presumption). FRA 2006 (forest rights, Gram Sabha). PESA 1996 (Panchayati Raj in 5th Schedule). LARR 2013 (consent + compensation)
Samatha v. AP (1997) mining leases to non-tribals void. Nandini Sundar (2011) Salwa Judum unconstitutional. Orissa Mining (2013) Gram Sabha consent for mining

2 Schedules for tribals: 5th Schedule = Governor's powers in Scheduled Areas (10 states). 6th Schedule = Autonomous District Councils in NE (4 states: "AMTM" — Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Mizoram). 4 key tribal statutes: "SAFE-PL" — SC/ST Atrocities Act 1989, FRA 2006 (forest rights), PESA 1996 (Panchayats), LARR 2013 (land acquisition). All 3 cases = mining/land: Samatha, Nandini Sundar, Orissa Mining.

Aged Persons

Elderly (60+) growing from 8.6% (2011) to 19.5% by 2050 — joint family breakdown, urbanization, abandonment
UN Principles 1991 — Independence, Participation, Care, Self-fulfilment, Dignity. Madrid Plan 2002. No binding convention yet
Maintenance Act 2007 — children legally obligated to maintain parents; Tribunal in each Sub-Division; abandonment = 3 months imprisonment; property transfer voidable; old age homes per district
Art 41 DPSP — public assistance in old age, sickness, disablement
Ashwani Kumar v. UOI (2019) — effective implementation of Maintenance Act

UN Principles for Elderly (1991) — 5 words: "I-P-C-S-D" — Independence, Participation, Care, Self-fulfilment, Dignity. Maintenance Act 2007: children must maintain parents; Tribunal per Sub-Division; abandonment = 3 months jail; property transfer voidable. Art 41 DPSP = public assistance in old age.

Minorities

6 notified religious minorities: Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Parsis, Jains. Linguistic = state-wise
Art 25-28 religious freedom: profess/practise/propagate (Art 25), manage affairs (Art 26), no religion tax (Art 27), no religious instruction in State institutions (Art 28)
Art 29(1) conserve distinct culture/language/script. Art 29(2) no admission denial
Art 30(1) — MOST IMPORTANT: right to establish & administer educational institutions. Art 30(2) no discrimination in granting aid
Art 350A-B — mother tongue education; Special Officer for Linguistic Minorities
NCM Act 1992 — Chair + 6 members, civil court powers, monitors, investigates, recommends
ICCPR Art 27 right to culture, religion, language. UN Declaration on Minorities 1992
TMA Pai (2002) minority status state-wise, Art 30 scope. PA Inamdar (2005) no reservation on unaided. St. Stephen's (1992) 50% quota OK. SR Bommai (1994) secularism = basic feature
Challenges: communal violence, housing/employment discrimination, under-representation, personal law vs gender equality tension

6 notified minorities: "MCSBPJ" — Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Parsis, Jains. Key Articles: Art 25-28 = religious freedom, Art 29 = culture/language, Art 30 = establish & administer educational institutions (MOST IMPORTANT for minorities). Art 30 cases: TMA Pai (2002 — state-wise minority status), PA Inamdar (2005 — no reservation on unaided), St. Stephen's (1992 — 50% quota OK). SR Bommai (1994): secularism = basic structure.